Question Bank for LMNT

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Dr. Lajpatrai Mehra’s Neurotherapy Academy,

Question Bank for LMNT Certificate Course - Theory Paper 1

Note : I) The Question Bank will be updated from time to time

II) This Question Bank is not exhaustive.

20% of the questions in the Question paper may not be a part of the Question Bank

Q1. Given below are various statements on different systems of the body, which are true. Based on these true statements, other statements will be given in the exam paper. The information given here will be helpful in solving them.

Digestive system

1. Liver receives blood through two blood vessels – one is the the hepatic artery which brings oxygenated blood from the aorta for nutrition of the liver cells. The other is the portal vein which brings the blood from the stomach, intestines, pancreas and spleen (SIPS). When the blood from the portal vein passes through the liver and if it contains any bacteria or virus, they will be destroyed by the Kupffer cells of the liver before the blood enters the heart. The hepatic vein carries deoxygenated blood from the liver to the heart through the inferior vena cava.

2. Vitamin B12 is absorbed in the ileum and is stored in the liver. Its deficiency causes pernicious anemia.

3. Vitamin B12 can be absorbed only in the presence of ‘Intrinsic factor’, a protein secreted by the gastric mucosa.

4. All digestive juices are alkaline except gastric juice.

5. The pancreas has two different functions - exocrine and endocrine functions.

6. The exocrine pancreas secretes electrolytes (sodium bicarbonate) and digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, trypsin and chymotrypsin. ( All these chemicals come out through the pancreatic duct and pass via the common bile duct to the ampoulla of vater. From there they enter the duodenum )

7. Three hormones - insulin, glycogen & somatostatin are secreted by the endocrine pancreas. ( These three chemicals are secreted by cells situated on the outer surface of the pancreas called as alpha, beta and delta cells and they directly enter the blood. That is why they are known as hormones.)

8. Pancreas has exocrine function of producing digestive juices plus electrolytes and endocrine function of producing insulin, glucagon and somatostatin.

9. The chemicals which digest or break down other chemicals are called as enzymes. The chemical structure of most enzymes is not known. However, all enzymes end in suffix ‘ase’ . They are named either after their function, substrate or end product. Examples are Lipase, amylase. Lipases are those enzymes which digests lipids (fats). They hydrolyse fats into glycerol and fatty acids. But there are exceptions such as : pepsin, trypsin, erepsin, rennin. These too are enzymes, but they do not have ‘ase’ at the end of their names.

10. HDL is good cholesterol and LDL is bad cholesterol. The full name of HDL is – high density lipoprotein. LDL is low density lipoprotein. It is called as bad cholesterol because when the level of LDL in the blood increases, it is harmful to the health.

11. Glucose (C6H12O6) is monosaccharide and glycogen is a polysaccharide.

12. The enzymes which digest sugars are known as amylases. So ptyalin is known as Salivary Amylase. The amylase from the pancreas is known as Pancreatic Amylase. Both these amylases convert all bigger molecules of polysaccharides like starch and glycogen into disaccharides and monosaccharides by a process called as hydrolysis. But there is one difference. Pancreatic amylase requires a pH=8 for its action, which is known as an alkaline pH. Saliva works in a slightly acidic medium between pH=6.8 to pH = 4.5. { BUT when the pH goes from 4.5 to pH=3, that is, in a strongly acidic medium, the ptyalin of saliva will be unable to digest sugars. }

13. Rennin is an enzyme in the stomach, which converts caseinogen of milk into casein. This can happen only when there is proper production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach.

14. Pepsin is an enzyme in the stomach, which converts proteins into peptones. For this work also, it is essential that there is proper production of hydrochloric acid in stomach.

15. Trypsin is an enzyme from the pancreas, which hydrolyses peptides to amino acids. This work is done in the duodenum.

16. The enzymes which break proteins are known as proteolytic enzymes. They break proteins by splitting the peptide bond/ linkage (CO-NH), by a process called as hydrolysis

17. Glucose is absorbed in the blood in small intestine and carried to each cell. Glucose molecule on respiration yields carbon dioxide, water, ATP & heat.

18. Lipids after digestion are absorbed by the epithelium of the VILLI into lacteals & lymph stream. They travel through the venous blood and reach the heart via the thoracic duct at the subjugular-subclavian junction. From there, they pass through the arteries and are stored in adipose tissues or in the liver.

{ Lacteals are those capillaries of the lymph through which fats reach the lymph nodes.}

19. Normal cholesterol level is 150-250 mgms/100 ml. blood.

20. CCK, Secretin and Gastrin are hormones and Amylase, Enterokinase, Lipase, Pepsin, Pepsinogen, Ptyalin, Rennin, Trypsin, are enzymes.

21. Enzymes are released through a duct or pipe and are secreted in a specific place. Their work is usually limited to a specific place. Hormones do not pass into any duct. They pass directly into the blood. They are chemical messengers and carry message from one organ to another organ which may be situated quite far away.

22. Ptyalin of saliva digests cooked starches into disaccharides at pH = 4.5 to 7.5 ( It works best at pH = 6.8).

23. Digestive system is the collective term used to describe:

a. the alimentary canal,

b. the accessory organs (liver, pancreas, gall bladder and the salivary glands) and

c. the processes which take place at different places in the canal to prepare the food for digestion and absorption.

24. Digestive system includes the alimentary canal. Alimentary canal is only the part of the whole digestive system. Alimentary canal is also known as GIT (gastro-intestinal tract).

25. Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth and duodenum; and the end products are monosaccharides.

26. Proteins are digested in the stomach and duodenum/jejunum; and the end products are Amino acids.

27. Fats are digested in duodenum/jejunum. The end products are fatty acids and glycerol.

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Endocrine glands & hormonal system

1. Muscle cramps are due to deficiency of calcium or sodium.

2. If cramps disappear with intake of common salt, then cramps are due to sodium.

Explanation : This type of cramps often comes to sportsmen and athletes or to those who do heavy manual in the sun. Such people may be given lime-juice mixed with salt and sugar. If the cramps do not go away even after taking such water, then they are due to deficiency of calcium. Cramps due to calcium deficiency often occur, when the person turns to one side during sleep.

Whatever be the reason, the quickest remedy for cramps is to raise both the hands above the heads and click/snap the fingers for at least ½ a minute.

3. The cells which build bones are known as Osteoblasts.

The cells which destroy (or consume) bones are known as Osteoclasts.

4. Parathyroid hormone (PTH OR Parathormone) regulates calcium metabolism and controls the amount of calcium in the blood and bone.

5. Adrenal cortex releases cortisol, hydrocortisone, aldosterone and corticosterone.

6. Adrenal medulla produces adrenaline (epinephrine) and nor adrenaline (nor epinephrine).

7. Normal blood sugar level ranges from 70 to 110 mg.% before meals (This is called as fasting sugar level) and up to 140 mgm% after 2 hours of taking meals.

[mg. = mgm; % means per 100ml ].

8. Absence of Insulin inhibits glucose utilization and results in Hyperglycemia, (also known as Diabetes mellitus).

9. Excess Insulin lowers blood sugar and causes hypoglycemia when the sugar level is below 80mg/100ml of blood. This can lead to giddiness, coma and death.

10. Diabetic coma or hyperglycemic coma is due to lack of insulin and is treated with large doses of insulin. Hypoglycemic coma is due to excess of insulin and is treated with glucose. Coma may also be due to high concentration of acid or due to a blow to the head. (Hypoglycemic coma and Hyperglycemic coma – both of these affect diabetics, especially those who are taking insulin tablets or injections.)

11. The front or anterior lobe of pituitary produces à GH, ACTH, FSH, LH. TSH and PRH while the back or the posterior lobe of pituitary secretes ADH and Oxytocin hormone.

12. Angiotensin No. I is converted to Angiotensin No. II by converting enzyme (ACE) in the lungs.

13. Epiphyseal cartilage persists until the bone is fully grown.

(Epiphyses is the secondary bone-forming centre present in children at the end of the long bones of the arms and legs. This is separated from the main bone by a thin cartilage.

After this cartilage fuses to the bone, no further increase in height is possible.)

14. Low level of sodium in blood causes shrinkage of the tissues, low blood pressure, muscular weakness & stiffness, cramps, heavy stomach, dehydration and unconsciousness.

15. Increased Sodium level in blood causes swelling and high BP.

16. Low levels of potassium in blood (hypokalemia) leads to muscle weakness, , enlarged spleen and pain in the whole body.

17. Lactic acid accumulates in the blood when oxygen supply is not sufficient during the breakdown of glycogen during respiration.

18. High levels of androgens in females produced by Adrenal-Cortex causes masculinisation.

19. Thymus and Adrenal gland inhibit each other.

20. Pancreas slows down the Hyperactivity of Pituitary/Thyroid.

21. Melatonin is an anti-aging hormone released by the pineal gland.

22. Hypo-activity of Pituitary in childhood results in dwarfs and Hyperactivity in childhood causes Gigantism and adult stage causes Acromegaly.

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Heart, Blood & Circulatory system
1. Vagus stimulation inhibits the heart.

2. The person with low Hemoglobin count feels weak.

3. Vitamin B12 and Folic acid deficiency results in low RBC count.

4. Liver receives oxygenated blood by hepatic artery and de-oxygenated blood from stomach, intestine, pancreas and spleen by portal vein.

5. Heart, lungs and liver - these three organs have double blood supply.

6. Cardiac output is 5 liters per minute at rest and it can go upto 20 litres during exercise. Every heart beat forces out 82ml. blood.

7. Cardiac cycle is 0.85 second.

8. Fried food and LDL are dangerous for heart patients.

9. Heparin treatment is not to be given during any form of bleeding such as due to wounds, accident or during menses.

10. Inferior vena cava and superior Vena cava bring impure blood from different parts of body to the heart.

11. Blood brain barrier is the special characteristics of the capillaries of the brain that prevent potentially harmful substances from moving out of the blood stream into the brain or CSF.

12. An infarct is an area of tissue that has died due to lack of oxygenated blood.

13. The amount of blood pumped by the heart each time it contracts is 82ml; the heart beats about 70 times a minute. The amount of blood pumped each minute by the heart is 5 liters in resting condition. ( 70 x 82 = 5740 ml; ) During exercise, the heart beat may increase to about 150 per minute with 150ml per stroke, making a cardiac output of 20 to 25 liters per minute. Heart pumps about 12,000litres/day.

14. Lactic acid increases in blood, when oxygen is not sufficient during the breakdown of glycogen (common in athletes and heart patients).

15. Prothrombin (from liver) + calcium + thrombokinase (from injured platelets) form Thrombin. This converts fibrinogen into fibrin that forms a blood clot with blood cells.

Explanation: The mechanism of clot formation is given in the above lines. There are 12 chemicals in the blood which are necessary for clotting. These are known as clotting factors. Important among these are calcium and platelets. When platelets break during injury, they release an enzyme called thrombokinase. At the same time two other clotting factors called prothrombin and fibrinogen are also released by the liver into the blood and reach the site of injury. The thrombokinase released by the platelets converts the prothrombin in the blood into thrombin in the presence of calcium. Thrombin converts the fibrinogen released by the liver into fibrin, which forms a fine mesh-like net at the site of injury, in which broken RBC’s and other cells get trapped and form a clot which helps the broken place to mend faster.

Note: If the liver does not produce prothrombin or fibrinogen or if there is deficiency of calcium, platelets, vitamin K or other clotting factors, then clotting cannot take place. As a result, such a person will have continuous bleeding even at the slightest injury. If this happens to a lady she will have continuous menses, which will never stop till the clotting factors are produced. (Acid formula of LMNT is helpful in stopping the bleeding. So it is probable that perhaps thrombokinase cannot work when the blood becomes an acidic.)

16. Cholesterol is a lipoprotein, which when in excess may lead to hardening of the arteries. (Lipoprotein = compound made of lipids (fats) and proteins)

17. Anemia is the deficiency of three number of RBC or amount of hemoglobin contained in them.

18. Heparin is a chemical which prevents clotting. The cells which produce heparin are known as mast cells, which are found in great numbers in liver and lungs.

Explanation : 85% of the heparin of the body is made in the liver and lungs. The rest 15% is made in small quantities in each and every cell of the body. Blood flows with great force throughout the body. But in the lungs and in the liver, its speed is greatly reduced, that for about 1/100th of a second it almost seems to stop. This is the time necessary for the body for exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide; and the same time is taken by the Kupffer cells to destroy any bacteria or virus which may have entered the blood through food. The property of blood is to clot in any place wherever it stays for some time, which will be fatal if it happens in the liver or the lungs. It is for this reason that heparin is produced in such great quantities in both these places.

19. Coronary thrombosis is due to clot in the coronary artery. OR Coronary Thrombosis is blocking of the coronary arteries by thrombus.

Explanation : A blood clot which blocks an artery of the heart or any other organ is called as ‘Thrombus’. Coronary thrombosis can cause a heart attack or even heart failure. A thrombus can occur in any artery anywhere in the body. When the thrombus gets dislodged from its original location and travels through the blood to some other place is called an embolus. If this embolus gets blocked in some artery of the brain, it may lead to paralysis.

20. Arteriosclerosis (atherosclerosis) is narrowing of lumen of the arteries due to deposition of cholesterol on the wall; calcium and phosphate may also stick in the cholesterol followed by breaking of platelets due to friction leading to clot formation.

21. Hematoma is internal hemorrhage & clotting due to accident or an operation. (Hemorrhage means abnormal release of blood into the body tissues).

22. RBC maturation involves the following stages – reduction of size, removal of nucleus & incorporation of hemoglobin.

Explanation : Maturation means the capacity to do a particular work. When RBC’s are formed in the bone marrow their diameter is 45µ. The RBC’s can enter the capillaries only when their diameter gets reduced to 7.5µ. ( µ = .0001 mm)

23. Clots in the vessels may be the cause of pain & paralysis.

24. RBCs which are more than 120 days old are destroyed by reticular endothelial cells more concentrated in the spleen & the liver (Kupffer cells).

25. Anoxia (no oxygen) stimulates the production of RBC’s.

Explanation : Low level of oxygen in the blood is called anoxia. When this happens, the kidneys release a hormone called erythropoietin, which gives message to bone marrow to start production of RBC’s.

26. Normal hemoglobin is 12-16gm/dl in females, 14-17gm/dl in males.

27. Heparin prevents blood clotting, plasmin dissolves the clots.

28. Erythropoiesis (formation of RBC’s) in the bone marrow is stimulated by erythropoetin from the kidneys, when there is anoxia (insufficient amount of Oxygen in the blood ). It requires the following :-

a. Proteins – (for cell building, growth and repair)

b. Iron – (for hemoglobin)

c. Vitamin C – (a factor necessary for formation of collagen and essential in maintenance of integrity of intercellular cement in capillary walls. Collagen is a strong, fibrous, insoluble protein found in connective tissue.)

d. Folic acid – ( necessary for maturation of RBC’s )

e. Vitamin B12 – ( necessary for maturation of RBC’s

f. Copper and Manganese (Copper is an essential component of several enzymes especially those for hemoglobin synthesis. Manganese is an essential element needed for normal bone metabolism and many enzyme reactions.)

29. “O” blood group is known as a universal Donor and “AB” blood group is a universal recipient. { Those who have blood group ‘O’ can donate blood to all. But they can receive blood from “O” group persons only. Those who have blood group ‘AB’ can receive blood from all persons. But they can donate blood to “AB” group persons only.

30. A Rh -ve woman with an Rh +ve fetus is given a single dose of anti-Rh antibodies during her pregnancy and immediately after delivery of the child to reduce the chances of hemolytic disease. (Only 15% persons in the world are Rh –ve).

Explanation : If a pregnant lady has a blood group Rh -ve but her fetus has the blood group Rh +ve; During delivery the fetal cells may enter the mother’s blood; and if they do so, they will stimulate production of antibodies against the Rh factor. In a subsequent pregnancy, these antibodies will cross the placenta and enter the fetal circulation and will destroy the fetal RBC’s. This is called hemolytic disease of the newborn. To protect against this, the lady is given a single dose of anti-Rh antibodies both during pregnancy as well as immediately after delivery.

31. The instrument called sphygmo-manometer measures the arterial blood pressure. The stethoscope is placed on the brachial artery and air is pumped into the air bag wrapped around the upper arm, till no sound is heard. Then air is released from the valve gradually and the reading – when the blood spurting sound is just heard – is the systolic blood pressure - eg., 120 mm of Hg (mercury) and just when the sound stops, the reading gives the diastolic pressure e.g. 80 mm of Hg.

Blood pressure changes with sex, age, exercise, sleep, tension etc.

32. Normal RBC count is 4 to 5.5 million cells in males & 4.5 to 5 million cells in females’ per ml. WBC count ranges from 1000 to 10000 cells per ml. Platelets ranges from 2.5 to 5 lakh cells per ml.

33. WBC increase during infection and when they goes beyond 11000 per cu.mm. it is known as leucocytosis.

34. 24,00,000 (24 lakhs) RBC’s are produced per second in the bone marrow in adults and almost the same number are disintegrated in the reticulo-endothelial system in the spleen and liver after a life span of 120 days. This is a continuous life-long process.

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Lymphatic system

1. Globulin forms antibodies in the lymph nodes.

2. The lymph glands have three functions :

a. add lymphocytes to the lymph

b. filter out and destroy pathogens (microbes) to prevent infection from spreading

c. produce antibodies to protect the body against future infection.

3. Spleen forms RBC during fetal life and may also do so in adult life, if the function of the bone marrow is impaired. Its other functions are : to manufacture lymphocytes, separates out worn and old RBC’s from circulation and also destroys WBC. It provides antibodies.

Explanation : From the sixth week of the fetus, its liver produces RBC’s. From the third month onwards, the spleen and other lymphatic tissues help the bone marrow to produce RBC’s for the fetus. When the bone marrow is fully developed and starts functioning normally then it alone is responsible for RBC production till death. But, if due to any disease, the bone marrow becomes incapable of producing RBC’s then the spleen will once again take up the job of RBC production so that death does not occur due to lack of blood. In addition, the spleen has the following functions :

In case of infection, the body will require large numbers of lymphocytes and WBC’s. For this purpose the spleen will have to work more. Due to this extra load, its size becomes larger than normal. This is called as splenomegaly. This is not a disease by itself, but it indicates that there is an abnormal infection somewhere in the body.

If there is a sudden hemorrhage which causes loss of blood, then the BP will drop which may even cause heart failure. In such a case, the spleen will contract itself, releasing almost 350ml. of blood into circulation, thereby averting possible death.

4. T-lymphocytes kill the pathogens. B-lymphocytes produce antibodies.

5. Thymus produces T-helper, T-killer, T-memory and T-suppressor cells.

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Respiratory system

1. Breathlessness may be due to deficiency of iron in the blood.

2. Arterial blood holds 19ml of O2 & Venous blood holds 14ml. of O2 per 100ml of blood.

3. 100ml of blood gains 5 ml. of oxygen as it passes through the lungs. Or in other words, 250ml of CO2 are removed from the blood by lungs each minute. (The heart normally puts out 5 lit. of blood and this will contain 25o ml. of carbon dioxide ).

4. pH of blood is maintained in the range of 7.35 to 7.45 by the following three systems -

a. Elimination of CO2 from lungs during respiration.

b. Excretion of acid in urine

c. Sodium bicarbonate [NaHCO3] buffer

5. The lungs increase pH, i.e. they decrease acidity by eliminating CO2 in expired air. The kidneys decrease acidity by re-absorption of bicarbonate ion HCO3-(base) by the distal tubules and excretion of hydrogen ions (H+).

Explanation : The lungs and the kidneys – both decrease acidity of blood but in different ways. The lungs throw out carbon dioxide during respiration, causing a reduction of carbonic acid in the blood, which in turn, reduces acidity of the blood.

The kidneys permit hydrogen ions (H+), which is acidic, to go out through urine and cause the distal tubules to reabsorb bicarbonate ion HCO3- . Both of these actions decrease the acidity of the blood.

6. In internal respiration, cells utilize glucose (C6H12O6)2 which results in CO2, H2O, ATP and heat.

7. The lungs have dual blood supply.

Explanation : The lungs receive pure blood through the bronchial artery, which provides nutrients for the lung muscles. They receive impure blood from the right ventricle of the heart which they purify by adding oxygen and then they send it through pulmonary veins to the left auricle of the heart.

8. Pulmonary arteries carry impure blood from the right ventricle to the lungs and pulmonary veins carry pure blood from the lungs to the left auricle.

Explanation : Two pulmonary arteris carry impure blood away from the heart to the lungs for purification and four pulmonary veins bring oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the heart for circulation to the rest of the body. (Any vessel that carries blood away from the heart is called an artery, any vessel that carries blood towards the heart is called vein).

9. Respiratory center lies in the medulla oblongata of the brain. It carries the impulse from the distended air sacs.

10. Ventilation (i.e., the amount of oxygen reaching the body) depends on the rate and depth of breathing.

11. 5000 ml (5 liters) is the air capacity of the lungs in males and 3500 ml in females; only 1/10th of this amount goes in and out.

12. Bronchial branch of the thoracic artery supplies oxygenated blood to the lungs and bronchial veins carry impure blood to the superior vena cava. (The artery which supplies nutrition and oxygen to the muscles of the lungs is called as bronchial branch of the thoracic artery.}

13. Exchange of gases occurs in the alveoli (bunch of air sacs). Oxygenated blood (inspired air) has 20% of O2 and 0.04% of CO2, whereas de-oxygenated blood has 15% O2 and 4.04% of CO2.

14. Hemoglobin (iron compound in RBC) combines with O2 (oxygen) to form oxy-hemoglobin.

15. Bronchitis is inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the respiratory tract.

16. Asthma is constriction of bronchial air - ways.

17. Normal breathing rate is 15 times / minute and it increases with exercise.

18. Fear, emotion, pain, cold water bath, low temperature stimulate respiratory centre. CO2 is acidic and stimulates respiration.

19. External respiration consists of inspiration, expiration and pause.

20. Pranayama is controlled breathing.

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Reproductive System
1. Estrogen is released by Graafian follicles in the blood stream, in the first half of the menstrual cycle. It brings about development of female sex organs & secondary sexual characteristics at puberty in girls. (follicle = small sacs; Graafian follicle = sacs of the ovaries which release one mature ovum per month ready for fertilization.)

2. Progesterone is released in the blood stream in 2nd half of menstrual cycle. It causes the endometrium to become thick, soft and velvety for the reception of the fertilized ovum and it also inhibits menstruation.

3. Levels of Estrogen and Progesterone fall at the end of the menstruation cycle.

4. Ovum is the female gamete and sperm is the male gamete, each with haploid number of chromosomes.

5. In girls puberty starts with menstruation at the age of 10 -14 years.

6. Menopause in women starts at 45 to 50 years. Hot flushes occur, ovaries become smaller and their secretions stop. ( The hot flushes may last for two to three years).

7. Ovulation is maturation of the Graafian follicle and liberation of the ovum. One ovum is set free and extruded at about the middle of each menstrual cycle.

8. Progesterone is secreted by corpus luteum. It inhibits menstruation and makes the endometrium soft & velvety, ready for reception of the fertilized ovum.

9. Fertilization is fusion of the sperm with the ovum. It normally occurs in uterine tube after intercourse.

10. Uterine tube conveys the ovum from the ovary to the uterus; and also provides the sites for fertilization.

11. Fertilized egg implants in the wall of the uterus.

12. Male plasma has a small amount of estrogen formed by the liver from androgens with some unknown functions.

13. Androgens from adrenal cortex are responsible for sex drive and growth of pubic and axillary hair.

14. When a female has excess androgens, she develops masculine features.

15. Fetus is bathed in amniotic fluid.

16. Testis produce spermatozoa and male sex hormone testosterone.

17. Prostate gland occurs below the bladder surrounding the urethra & is composed of glandular tissue with ducts & involuntary muscles. It secretes a thin, slightly alkaline fluid, which forms a part of seminal fluid.

18. Enlargement of the prostate obstructs the urethra & causes retention of urine.

19. Placenta provides the fetus with nourishment derived from the maternal blood (fetal lung), providing oxygen & removal of the waste products from the fetal blood.

20. Testosterone is male sex hormone produced by interstitial cells of testis under the stimulation of LH of the pituitary gland. At puberty, testosterone is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males.

21. Sperms are transported in the secretion of seminal vesicles and the prostate gland.

22. Spermatozoa mature and increase in vigor in epididymis, where they are stored. They leave the scrotum through the vas deferens. If they are not ejaculated, they soon degenerate & are absorbed. They survive for 48 to 72 hrs in female body.

23. Seminal fluid contains several 100 million spermatozoa.

24. Testis in scrotum should be at least 2°C below normal body temperature, in order to remain fertile.

(Explanation : This is why in most mammals, the testes hang away from the body, so that they may be cooled by the air circulation.

25. Gonadotrophins (FSH & LH) stimulate gonads i.e. testis in males & ovaries in females.

26. Prolactin stimulates production of milk in females.

27. Functions of testis : They are the male organs of generation where spermatozoa are formed and the male sex hormone Testosterone is produced.

Testosterone is the male sex hormone secreted by the interstitial cells, which lie in the interspaces between the seminiferous tubules of the testis under the stimulation of leutenising hormone (LH) of the pituitary.

28. Steroids include cholesterol, bile acid, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone & vitamin D.

29. Every normal human cell has 46 chromosomes. 23 chromosomes come from the testis of the father in the sperm while the other 23 chromosomes come from the ovary of the mother in the egg which after fertilization join to form one single cell which is called as ZYGOTE, which has 46 chromosomes. This single cell zygote multiplies itself to form identical cells with 46 chromosomes, which later form an entire human body.

30. Every normal male cell has 22 pair of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes ‘X’ and ‘Y’. Male produces X sperm and Y sperm. Every normal female cell has 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes both of which are ‘X’ and ‘X’. Therefore all the eggs of females have one type of sex chromosome and that is ‘X’ chromosome only. ‘Y’ chromosome is smaller than ‘X’ chromosomes in size.

31. Down’s syndrome is due to ‘Triplo-21’, i.e. an individual with chromosome number 21 represented three times. Therefore each cell has 46+1=47 chromosomes. Such individuals have mongoloid face, simian crease on the palm, thick protruding tongue etc.

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Brain & Nervous System
1. Neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It has a cell body, axons and dendrons.

2. Sensory(afferent) nerve carries impulses from different organs to the CNS. ( CNS means the spinal cord, medulla and brain).

3. Motor (efferent) nerve carries impulses from the CNS to the different organs.

4. Cell bodies form the gray matter of the nervous system. They are found at the periphery of the brain and the center of the spinal cord.

5. Axons and dendrons (dendrites) form the fibers of the nerve.

6. Myelinated nerves are covered by the myelin sheath of white fat, for protection and insulation. They form the white matter of the brain.

7. Ganglion is a collection of the nerve cells.

8. Brain is covered by 3 membranes called Meninges. (The 3 layers are called Duramater, Arachnoid mater & Piamater). Meningitis is inflammation of the meninges of the brain

9. Nerve plexus is a network of nerve fibers and neuron cell bodies

10. Vagus or the 10th cranial nerve stimulates the Parasympathetic nervous system. It is a mixed nerve which stimulates all the organs of the digestive system except the descending colon. It inhibits the heart activity.

11. Vagus nerve activates (contracts) lungs, digestive system excepting the descending colon and inhibits the heart rate and force of pumping.

12. C.S.F (Cerebro spinal fluid) is a clear alkaline fluid secreted by the network of minute capillary blood vessels into the 4 ventricles of the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid acts as a buffer protecting the brain and the spinal cord, carries nourishment to the tissues of the central nervous system.

13. Nor-epinephrine is the post-ganglionic neurotransmitter of the Sympathetic Nervous system. It is also released along with Epinephrine into the blood from theAdrenal medulla during stimulation of the Sympathetic nervous system under the control of Hypothalamus.

14. Nor-epinephrine and epinephrine increases®Heart rate, Blood pressure, blood glucose level; but they decrease digestive activity and they dilate bronchioles.

15. Third cranial nerve contracts the pupil of the eye.

16. If brain is deprived of blood for 2 minutes or more, it leads to death of some brain cells. Explanation : This will cause parts of the brain to become inactive, and is one of the main causes of paralysis, cerebral palsy and other brain disorders.

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Urinary System (KUB system or Excretory system )
1. A nephron is the functional unit of a kidney.

2. Each kidney has 10 lakh nephrons.

3. The vagus nerve of PSN increases the secretion of urine from the kidneys.

4. The Sacral nerves of PSN (para sympathetic nervous system) contract the muscle of the urinary bladder wall and relax the Urinary bladder sphincter.

5. The lumbar nerves of the sympathetic nervous system, decreases the secretion of urine by the kidneys, relax the bladder muscles and close the bladder Sphincter.

6. Aldosterone from Adrenal cortex increases the excretion of potassium and also the re-absorption of sodium and water by kidney tubules, which raises the blood pressure.

7. Low blood volume and low blood sodium stimulate kidneys to release Rennin which converts Angiotensinogen (from liver) to AT1 (Angiotensin1) which is converted to AT2 (Angiotensin2) by Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) of the lung and thus raises the blood pressure.

8. Glycosuria (=sugar in urine) occurs due to Hyperglycemia ( high level of sugar in blood) caused by insulin deficiency, or due to hyper secretion of Thyroid, Adrenal or Growth Hormone.

9. Deficiency of insulin causes glycosuria and polyuria ( excess urination).

10. Relaxation of bladder wall is due to inhibition of parasympathetic and activation of sympathetic nerves.

11. Micturition is essentially a reflex action carried out through centers in the spinal cord.

12. Kidneys decrease acidity by re-absorption of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and excretion of hydrogen ions (H

13. Vasopressin (ADH) from the posterior pituitary increases water re-absorption by the distal tubules (of the kidneys) and reduces the urine quantity; and thus increases BP.

14. Vasa recta[1] prevents the accumulation of excess of sodium, chloride, urea and water in the medulla of the kidneys by removing it into the stream.

15. Excess doses of Vitamin C for a long time inhibits absorption of Vitamin B12 and may cause Uricosuria ( excess urea in blood) and uric oxalate stones in kidney.

16. 1200 cc of blood passes through the kidneys every minute and the entire blood is purified 30 times through the kidney in a day.

17. About 180 liters of blood are filtered through the glomeruli of the kidneys and only 1.5 liters approx. is passed out as urine per day, while the rest is re-absorbed.

Questions based on the above statements. State whether the following are true or false. If false, rewrite the correct sentences.

Digestive system
Q1. Liver receives blood from stomach, intestine, pancreas and spleen by portal vein and from aorta by hepatic artery.

Q2. Gastric juice is alkaline.

Q3. Vitamin B12 is stored in the liver and requires ‘Intrinsic factor’ from the intestine for its absorption.

Q4. Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase from the intestines into trypsin.

Q5. Pancreas produces digestive juices, electrolytes and somatostatin.

Q6. Carbohydrates are absorbed as glucose and proteins as amino acids in the Jejunum.

Q7. 85% cholesterol is consumed by liver for converting it into bile salts.

Q8. Enterokinase converts trypsin into trypsinogen.

Q9. The liver receives de-oxygenated blood through hepatic portal vein and oxygenated blood through hepatic artery.

Q10. Vitamin B12 is stored in the spleen.

Q11. Fats are digested in the stomach.

Q12. Pepsinogen becomes active pepsin when pH comes down to 3.

Q13. Amylase, CCK, lipase, gastrin and ACTH are enzymes.

Q14. Epiglottis opens the wind pipe when food passes through the food pipe.

Q15. Vitamin B12 is stored in the intestine.

Q16. Bile helps in digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

Q17. Gastrin is formed in the intestine.

Q18. Pancreas stores vitamin B12.

Q19. Trypsin hydrolyses peptides into amino acids.

Q20. Glucose is absorbed in the large intestine.

Q21. Absorption of digested food products occurs in the large intestine.

Q22. Deficiency of thiamine may cause skin problems like pigmentation, cracks and inflammation in the mouth.

Q23. Lining of Gel on the inner surface protects the digestive system.

Q24. Bile is concentrated in the liver for storage.

Q25. HCl is secreted in the intestine.

Q26. Lacteals absorb proteins.

Q27. Portal vein carries blood from kidneys and liver.

Q28. Deficiency of vitamin B12 causes night blindness.

Q29. HDL is a bad cholesterol.

Q30. Pepsin hydrolyses carbohydrates into amino acids.

Q31. Bile digests fats in the ileum.

Q32.   Villi help in digestion of food in the large intestine.
Q33.   Acetylcholine digests proteins into glucose.
Q34.   Pepsin works in alkaline medium and trypsin works in acidic medium.

Q35. Vagus stimulates the digestive system and the heart.

Q36. Insulin is secreted by exocrine part of pancreas.

Q37. Cranial nerve No. 10 stimulates the entire digestive system.
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Endocrine glands and hormonal system

Q1. Muscle cramps are due to deficiency of calcium or sodium.

Q2. Osteoblasts destroy the bones and osteoclasts build the bones.

Q3. Amount of calcium in blood and bone is regulated by secretin.

Q4. Epinephrine is secreted by adrenal medulla.

Q5. Hypoglycemic coma is due to excessive production of insulin.

Q6. Posterior lone of pituitary gland secretes ADH and oxytocin.

Q7. Adrenal medulla produces corticosterone, hydrocortisone and aldosterone.

Q8. Anterior pituitary produces ADH and oxytocin.

Q9.       Endocrine glands are ductless and they send their secretions through blood.
Q10.   Somatostatin is produced by Pancreas to accelerate the growth of tumor
Q11.   Diabetes mellitus causes acidosis because fats are split into fatty acids and glycerol instead of glucose.

Q12. Osteoblasts destroy the bones.

Q13. Adrenal medulla produces adrenaline and noradrenaline.

Q14. Posterior pituitary produces oxytocin and TSH.

Q15. Pituitary gland produces ACTH to stimulate the adrenal medulla.

Q16. Hyperthyroid individuals have high basic metabolic rate (BMR) and are fat.

Q17. Norepinephrine is produced in the brain and kidneys.

Q18. Hyper pituitary leads to dwarfism.

Q19. Excess of insulin results in Hyperglycemia and glycosuria.

Q20. Hyper activity of the adrenal gland can be controlled by stimulating liver.

Q21. Progesterone and testosterone are produced by the ovaries.

Q22. Thyroid is an exocrine and endocrine gland.

Q23. Adrenal gland stimulates thymus gland’s function.

Q24. Glycosuria occurs when the blood level of sugar rises above 190 mg/dl.

Q25. Parathyroid and thyroid maintain the calcium balance in the bones and blood.

Q26. Osteoporosis occurs when osteoblasts are more active than osteoclasts.

Q27. Hypothyroid individuals have a high metabolic rate.

Q28. Pancreas is an endocrine gland.

Q29. Parathormone regulates magnesium levels in blood and bones.

Q30. Hormones are released through ducts and enzymes are released directly into the blood.

Q31. Low level of sodium in blood causes dehydration, cramps, heavy stomach, muscle stiffness and high BP.

Q32.   Increase in height can occur only after the epiphyseal line disappears.
Q33.   Excess insulin leads to hyperglycemia and can lead to giddiness, coma and death.
Q34.   Hypo-activity of adrenal gland in childhood causes Gigantism and in adult stage causes Acromegaly.

Q35. Glycosuria occurs when the blood level of sugar rises above 280 mg/dl.

Q36. Adrenal and thyroid maintain the calcium balance in the bones and blood.

Q37. Gout is the result of accumulation of lactic acid in the blood.
Q38. Hypothyroid individuals are fat.

Q39. Increase in height can occur only when the hypophyseal line is alright.

Q40.   People with hyper adrenal are like giants.
Q41.   Estrogen is released in the blood stream in the second half of the menstrual cycle.
Q42.   Thymus slows down the activity of the pituitary.
Q43.   Hyperthyroid individuals have high BMR and are fat.
Q44.   People with hypo pituitary are giants.
Q45.   Hypoglycemia is due to low concentration of insulin and can lead to coma.
Q46.   Thyroid slows down the activity of the pituitary.

Q47. Pancreas is only an endocrine gland.

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Heart, blood and Circulatory System

Q1. Bleeding increases with fall in the count of platelets.

Q2. Every second 24,00,000 RBC’s are produced in the bone marrow and the same number are disintegrated in the reticulo-endothelial system in the spleen and liver after a life span of 120 days.

Q3. Folic acid deficiency reduces WBC count.

Q4. Old RBC’s are destroyed in the stomach.

Q5. Monocytes can enter into the infected tissues to fight the microbes.

Q6. RBC numbers may increase when the spleen is hyperactive.

Q7. High count of platelets may lead to heavy bleeding during the menstrual cycle.

Q8. Prothrombin from liver, calcium from plasma and thrombokinase from injured platelets forms Thrombin which converts Fibrinogen into Fibrin necessary for CLOT formation

Q9. Heparin is only a clotting factor.

Q10. Atherosclerosis is narrowing of lumen of the arteries due to deposition of cholesterol on the wall.

Q11.   Heart beats 70 times/minute and pumps 5 liters of blood /minute during rest condition and these rates can decrease with exercise
Q12.   Normal systolic pressure is 120mmHg. and diastolic pressure is 80 mmHg. Blood pressure changes with age, sex, exercise and mental stress
Q13.   Heart muscles are supplied oxygenated blood by coronary vein.
Q14.   24,00,000 (24 lakh) R.B.C.'s are produced per sec. in the bone marrow in adults and almost the same numbers are disintegrated in the reticule endothelial system in the spleen and liver after a span of 120 days.

Q15. Normal pH of blood lies between 7.26 and 7.44.

Q16. Heart pumps 5 litres of blood every minute during resting and this can go maximum to 8 litres only per minute during exercise.

Q17. Heparin dissolves the clots and plasmin prevents prevents the formation clot.

Q18. Inferior vena cava brings blood from all parts of the body to the lungs.

Q19. HDL increases the risk of atherosclerosis.

Q20. WBC count decreases during infection.

Q21. Thrombokinase converts thrombin to fibrin.

Q22. Hematoma is internal hemorrhage and blood clotting due to an accident or operation.

Q23. 100 ml. of arterial blood has 14 ml of Oxygen & Venous blood has 19 ml. of Oxygen.

Q24. Heart receives de-oxygenated blood from pulmonary veins, superior vena cava and inferior vena cava.

Q25. Normal systolic BP is 80 mm. Hg which changes with age, physical and mental stress.

Q26. Lungs, thymus and kidneys help in maintaining the pH of the blood.

Q27. Normal blood pH ranges from 7.41 to 7.46.

Q28. RBC’s disintegrate in the lympn nodes in 180 days.

Q29. In humans, the pH of blood is maintained at pH = 6.7

Q30. Cardiac output is 5 litres while resting and becomes 7 litres during exercise.

Q31. Neutrophils enter infected tissue and fight with microbes.

Q32. WBC’s are destroyed in the bone marrow.

Q33.   Monocytes always remain in the blood.
Q34.   Normally 3 litres of oxygenated blood are pumped out by the heart every minute to different parts of the body.
Q35.   Normal range of cholesterol in the blood is 150-250 mg./dl. Of blood.
Q36.   Infection increases the RBC count.
Q37.   LDL is a good sugar.
Q38.   Normal range of WBC in the blood is 1000-12000 ml. of blood.
Q39.   WBC count increases during infection.

Q40. Vagus stimulates the heart.

Q41. LDL is beneficial and HDL is harmful to the body.

Q42.   LDL is good cholesterol.
Q43.   Eosinophils increase during allergies.
Q44.   WBC count decreases during infection.

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Lymphatic system

Q1. T-Lymphocytes are processed in the testis.

Q2. T-lymphocytes produce antibodies.

Q3. Globulin forms antibodies in lymph nodes.

Q4. Five litres of lymph return to the heart every day.

Q5. Lymph is formed by bone marrow.

Q6. Globulin forms antigens in the lymph nodes.

Q7. B-lymphocytes are processed in the thymus.

Q8. Spleen is an endocrine gland.

Q9. In AIDS, T-suppressor cells are destroyed.
Q10. Spleen produces T cells.

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Respiratory system

Q1. The pH of blood is maintained in the range of 7.35 to 7.45 by elimination of CO2 from lungs, excretion of acid in urine and sodium bicarbonate buffer.

Q2. 100 ml of blood gains 5 ml. of oxygen as it passes through the lungs.

Q3. Pulmonary arteries carry oxygenated blood.

Q4. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the alveoli of the lungs.

Q5. Bronchitis is constriction and asthma is inflammation of the bronchial passages.

Q6. Lungs receive de-oxygenated blood from the heart by pulmonary arteries.

Q7. Metabolic energy is produced in the form of ATP molecules during expiration.

Q8. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the bronchioles.

Q9. Deficiency of iron may cause breathlessness.

Q10. Bronchitis is constriction of the bronchial air passages.

Q11. Anoxia (no oxygen) lowers the production of RBC’s.

Q12.   Pulmonary arteries carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
Q13.   Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
Q14.   Asthma is inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the respiratory passages.

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Reproductive System

Q1. All male cells have XX chromosomes.

Q2. Scanty bleeding during menstruation may be due to deficiency of calcium.

Q3. Females develop male characteristics when the level of estrogen rises.

Q4. Persons with Down Syndrome have 46 chromosomes.

Q5. Male cells have 2X sex chromosomes.

Q6. Three times 21 chromosomes results in Down Syndrome.

Q7. Individuals with Down Syndrome have 48 chromosomes.

Q8. Progesterone causes the endometrium to become thick, soft and velvety for the reception of the fertilized ovum and it also inhibits menstruation.

Q9. Folic acid plays an important role in DNA and RNA synthesis.

Q10. Testis should remain 8° Celsius above normal body temperature, in order to remain fertile.

Q11. When the ovum is fertilized by a Y-sperm, then a girl is born.

Q12. Alkali accumulates in the blood when oxygen supply is not sufficient during respiration.

Q13. Uterus provides the fetus with nourishment derived from the maternal blood (fetal lung), providing oxygen & removal of the waste products from the fetal blood.

Q14. Prostate gland has no function.

Q15. Testosterone is released in the blood stream in the first half of the menstrual cycle.
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Brain and nervous system

Q1. In long-sighted persons, the lens focuses the image in front of the retina.

Q2.       Cerebrum controls all the voluntary responses
Q3.       Many organs have both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve supply to regulate the rate of their functions automatically.
Q4.       CSF acts as a buffer, protecting the brain and the spinal chord and also carries nourishment to the tissues of the CNS

Q5. Cerebro spinal fluid acts like a buffer and provides nourishment to the tissues of CNS.

Q6. Vagus activates Lungs, digestive systems organs except the descending colon and inhibits the heart

Q7. Vagus stimulates the kidneys to produce more urine, the sacral nerves contract the bladder and relax the bladder sphincter.

Q8. Cerebrum controls all involuntary functions.

Q9. Motor nerves carry impulses from different parts of the body to the CNS.

Q10. Cerebrospinal fluid protects and nourishes the tissues of CNS.

Q11. Different parts of the body are connected by 33 pairs of nerves to the spinal cord.

Q12. Myelin sheath protects and insulates the veins.

Q13. Parkinson results due to defect in the basal ganglion.

Q14. There are 21 pairs of spinal nerves in the body.

Q15. Motor nerve carries impulses from different parts of the body to the CNS.

Q16. CSF nourishes and protects the CNS.

Q17. Third cranial nerve contracts the pupil of the eye and hearing of the ear.

Q18. Blood brain barrier is the special characteristics of the capillaries of the brain that does not allow any chemical from moving out of the blood stream into the brain / CSF.

Q19. Vagus is a sensory nerve.
Q20. Cranial nerve No. 1 goes to the throat.

Q21. Nephron is the functional unit of the nervous system.

Q22. Ganglion is a collection of nephrons.

Q23. GABA is an oxygen carrier.
Q24. There are 100 million neurons in the human intestines and they can be activated by Neurotherapy Treatment to treat disease due to deficiency of chemicals produced by the central nervous system.

KUB System

Q1. Neurone is the functional unit of the kidney.

Q2. Swelling of the body occurs when kidneys fail to throw out sufficient amounts of salt and water under the influence of ADH.

Q3. Angiotensin #1 is converted into Angiotensin #2 in the kidneys, which raises BP.

Q4. Erythropoietin from kidneys stimulates maturation of RBC in the bone marrow.

Q5. Angiotensin #2 increases the blood volume and reduces the BP.

Q6. About 180 liters of blood are filtered through the glomeruli of the kidneys and only 1.5 liters approx. is passed out as urine per day, while the rest is re-absorbed.

Q7. Angiotensin #2 is produced in the kidneys and it lowers the BP.

Q8. ADH increases à water reabsorption by uriniferous tubules, the blood pressure and the volume of urine.

Q9. Vagus nerve decreases the secretion of urine from the kidneys.

Q10. Erythropoietin and angiotensinogen are produced in the lungs.

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